:: Firearms: Steyr AUG ::

The AUG is an Austrian 5.56mm assault rifle, designed in the early 1970s by Steyr Mannlicher GmbH & Co KG (formerly Steyr-Daimler-Puch). The AUG (Armee Universal Gewehr—”universal army rifle”) was adopted by the Austrian Army as the StG 77 (Sturmgewehr 77) in 1977, where it replaced the 7.62 mm StG 58 automatic rifle (a license-built FN FAL). In production since 1978, it is the standard small arm of the Austrian Bundesheer and various national police units.

The rifle has also been adopted by the armed forces of Argentina, Australia (accepted into service in 1985 and manufactured by Australian Defence Industries in Lithgow, this Austeyr model is also in use by New Zealand), Bolivia, Ecuador (since 1988), Ireland, Luxembourg, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia (introduced in 1978), Pakistan and since 1988— U.S. Customs (now the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement agency).

The AUG was designed as a family of rifles that could be quickly adapted to a wide variety of roles with the change of the barrel to a desired length and profile, among which are: a compact 350 mm (13.8 in) barrel, 407 mm (16.0 in) carbine barrel, 508 mm (20.0 in) standard rifle-length barrel and a 621 mm (24.4 in) light machine gun barrel. The AUG is a modular, bullpup configuration rifle that employs a high level of synthetic and advanced alloy components.

The primary variant of the rifle, designated the AUG A1, consists of six main assemblies: the barrel, receiver with integrated telescopic sight, bolt and carrier, trigger mechanism, stock and magazine. The AUG is a selective fire weapon with a conventional gas piston operated action that fires from a closed bolt. The gas cylinder is offset to the right side of the barrel and works with one of the two guide rods. The rotating bolt features 7 radial locking lugs and is unlocked by means of a pin on the bolt body and a recessed camming guide machined into the bolt carrier. The bolt carrier itself is guided by two guide rods brazed to it and these rods run inside steel bearings in the receiver. The guide rods are hollow and contain the return springs. The bolt also contains a claw extractor that forms the eighth locking lug and a spring-loaded “bump”-type casing ejector. The AUG uses a short-stroke piston system where the right guide rod serves as the action rod, transmitting the rearward motion of the gas-driven piston to the bolt carrier. The left-hand rod provides retracting handle pressure when connected by the forward assist and can also be used to remove fouling in the gas cylinder by utilizing the left-hand guide rod as a reamer. The firearm uses a 3-position gas valve (the first setting, marked with a small dot, is used for normal operation, the second setting illustrated with a large dot – fouled conditions while the third, “GR”-marked closed position is used to launch rifle grenades of the non-bullet trap type), a two-stage trigger (pulling the trigger halfway produces semi-automatic fire, pulling the trigger all the way to the rear produces fully automatic fire) and a safety mechanism (cross-bolt, button type), located immediately above the hand grip. In its “safe” position (white dot) the trigger is mechanically disabled; pressing the safety button to the left exposes a red dot and indicates the weapon is ready to fire. Some versions have an ALO or “automatic lockout”, a small projection at the base of the trigger. This was first included on the Irish Defence Forces variant of the rifle, and soon after, the Australian Defence Forces variant. In the exposed position the ALO stops the trigger being squeezed past the semi-automatic position. If needed, the ALO can be pushed up to permit automatic fire.

The AUG is hammer-fired and the firing mechanism is contained in the rear of the stock, near the butt, covered by a synthetic rubber shoulder plate. The hammer group is made entirely of plastics except for the springs and pins and is contained in an open-topped plastic box which lies between the magazine and the buttplate. During firing the recoiling bolt group travels over the top of it, resetting the hammer. Since the trigger is located some distance away, it transmits its energy through a sear lever which passes by the side of the magazine. The firing pin is operated by a plastic hammer under pressure from a coil spring.

The rifle is fed from translucent, double-column box magazines (molded from a high-strength polymer) with a 30-round capacity and an empty weight of 130 g (4.6 oz). The light machine gun version of the AUG uses an extended 42-round magazine.

The quick-change barrel used in the AUG is cold hammer-forged by GFM-GmbH of Steyr Austria for increased precision and durability, its bore, chamber and certain components of the gas system are chrome-plated. The standard rifle-length barrel features 6 right-hand grooves and a rifling twist rate of 228 mm (1:9 in). An external sleeve is shrunk on to the barrel and carries the gas port and cylinder, gas valve and forward grip hinge jaw. There is a short cylinder which contains a piston and its associated return spring. The barrel locks into a steel insert inside the receiver through a system of eight lugs arranged around the chamber end and is equipped with a folding, vertical grip that helps to pivot and withdraw the barrel during barrel changes. The most compact of the barrels has a fixed vertical grip. Three-pronged, open-type flash suppressors were used on the 350 mm (13.8 in), 407 mm (16.0 in) and 508 mm (20.0 in) length barrels, whereas the 621 mm (24.4 in) light machine gun barrel received a closed-type ported muzzle device (combination flash suppressor and compensator) and an integral, lightweight folding bipod. The flash suppressors are screwed to the muzzle and internally threaded to take a blank-firing attachment. Rifles equipped with 407 mm (16.0 in) and 508 mm (20.0 in) barrels are able to launch rifle grenades. 508 mm (20.0 in) pattern barrels produced for military purposes are also equipped with a bayonet lug. The manufacturer offers two other 508 mm (20.0 in) barrel configurations: the first – fitted with a fixed, post foresight (used on the standard rifle version with aperture iron sights) and the second type – equipped with a 40 mm M203 grenade launcher that can be used mounted on the standard length rifle or autonomously – as a stand-alone grenade launcher after attaching a shoulder pad to the end of the 5.56 mm barrel.

The receiver housing is a steel-reinforced aluminum extrusion finished with a baked enamel coating. It holds the steel bearings for the barrel lugs and the guide rods. The non-reciprocating plastic cocking handle works in a slot on the left side of the receiver and is connected with the bolt carrier’s left guide rod. The cocking handle has a forward assist feature – alternatively called a “silent cocking device” – used for pushing the bolt shut without recocking the rifle. A bolt hold-open device locks the bolt carrier assembly back after the last round has been fired. The AUG lacks a bolt release button, and the cocking handle must be retracted to release the bolt group after a new magazine has been inserted. Integrated with the receiver casting is a fixed carry handle that contains a 1.5x telescopic sight made by Swarovski Optik. It contains a simple black ring reticle with a basic rangefinder that is designed so that at 300 m (984.3 ft) a 180 cm (5 ft 10.9 in) tall man-size target will completely fill ( subtend ) it, giving the shooter a relatively accurate method of estimating range. The sight cannot be set to a specific range but can be adjusted for windage and elevation for an initial zero and is designed to be calibrated for 300 m. When so set, aiming at the centre of a target will produce a hit at all ranges out to 300m. The rifle also has a back-up iron sight with a rear notch and front blade, cast into the top of the aluminum optical sight housing, used in case of failure or damage to the primary optical sight. The sight is also equipped with a set of three illuminated dots (one on the front blade and two at the rear) for use in low-level lighting conditions. In order to mount a wide range of optics and accessories, a receiver with a NATO-standard Picatinny rail and detachable carry handle was also developed and introduced in 1997.

The rifle’s stock is made from fiberglass-reinforced polyamide 66. At the forward end is the pistol grip with an enlarged forward trigger guard completely enclosing the firing hand that allows the rifle to be operated with winter gloves. The trigger is hung permanently on the pistol grip, together with its two operating rods which run in guides past the magazine housing. Behind that is the locking catch for the stock group. Pressing this to the right will separate the receiver and stock. The magazine catch is behind the housing, on the underside of the stock. Above the housing are the two ejector openings, one of which is always covered by a removable strip of plastic. The rear of the stock forms the actual shoulder rest which contains the hammer unit and the end of the bolt path. The butt is closed by an endplate which is held in place by the rear sling swivel. This swivel is attached to a pin which pushes in across the butt and secures the plate. The rifle is fully ambidextrous. It can be configured for use by left-handed shooters by simply changing the bolt for a left handed one with the extractor and ejector on opposite sides, and moving a blanking cap from the left ejection opening to the right.

The AUG uses the 5.56×45mm NATO cartridge and the standard 1:9 rifling twist will stabilize both SS109/M855 and M193 bullets. Some nations including Australia and New Zealand use a version with a 1:7 twist optimised for the SS109 NATO round.

A semi-automatic version of the rifle known as the AUG P is available to the civilian and law enforcement markets. It features a shorter, 407 mm (16.0 in) barrel and a modified bolt, carrier and trigger assembly that will only allow semi-automatic fire. The rifle also has a slightly different optical sight that features a reticule with a fine dot in the center of the aiming circle, allowing for more precise aiming.

The light machine gun variant can be modified to fire from an open bolt (called the AUG LMG in this configuration). To accomplish this, a modified bolt carrier, striker and trigger mechanism with sear are used.

The rifle comes standard with four magazines, a muzzle cap, spare bolt for left-handed shooters, blank-firing adaptor, cleaning kit, sling and either an American M7 or Austrian KCB bayonet.

Based on the AUG, Steyr developed the 9 mm AUG submachine gun that fires the 9×19mm Parabellum pistol cartridge. It is an automatic, blowback-operated model that fires from a closed bolt. Unlike the rifle variants, this SMG has a unique 420 mm (16.5 in) barrel with 6 right-hand grooves at a 250 mm (1:9.8 in) rifling twist rate, ended with a recoil compensator, a slightly different charging handle and a magazine well conversion insert enabling the use of standard 25-round box magazines from the Steyr MPi 81 and TMP submachine guns. A conversion kit used to transform any rifle variant into the submachine gun is also available. It consists of a barrel, bolt, adapter insert and magazine.

Variants:

• AUG A1: Standard version introduced in 1977. Available with a choice of green or black furniture.
• AUG A2: Similar to the A1, but features a redesigned charging handle and a detachable telescopic sight which can be replaced with a MIL-STD-1913 rail.
• AUG A2 Commando: Similar to the A2, variant for the Austrian Special Forces introduced in late 2007. Features telescopic sight and side mounted MIL-STD-1913 rails.
• AUG A3 SF: Upper rail and integrated MIL-STD-1913 railed foregrip. It can be ordered with features such as a STANAG magazine stock group and an external bolt release.
• AUG A3: Similar to the A2 Commando with 16 inches barrel, features telescopic sight housing with MIL-STD-1913 rails.
• AUG P: Semi-automatic AUG A1 with a shorter, 407 mm (16.0 in) barrel.
• AUG P Special Receiver: Railed version of the AUG P.
• AUG 9 mm (AUG SMG/AUG Para): Chambered in 9×19mm Parabellum differs from A1 model in barrel, bolt, magazine and a magazine well adapter which allows the rifle to feed from Steyr MPi 69 magazines. This version operates as a blowback firearm, without use of the rifle’s gas system. For some time a kit of the above components was available to convert any AUG into a 9 mm SMG.
• AUG A3 9mm XS: 9mm Submachine gun version of the AUG A3. Similar to AUG 9 mm. But features 12.8 inches barrel and picatinny rail system.
• AUG M203: An AUG modified for use with the M203 grenade launcher.
• AUG LSW (Light Support Weapon): A family of light support versions of the AUG.
• AUG HBAR (Heavy-Barreled Automatic Rifle): A longer, heavier-barreled version for use as a light machine gun.
• AUG LMG (Light machine gun): Based on the AUG HBAR, fires from an open bolt, has 4x rather than 1.5x optic of the base AUG.
• AUG LMG–T: Same as LMG, but has rail similar to the AUG P Special Receiver.
• AUG HBAR–T: A rifle based on the HBAR with a universal scope mount cast into the receiver and fitted with a Kahles ZF69 6×42 optical sight.
• AUG Z: Semi-automatic version, somewhat similar to the A2, intended primarily for civilian use.
• AUG SA: Semi-automatic version of the A1 variant; built for civilian use and import to the US before being banned from importation in 1989.
• USR: An AUG A2 modified to meet U.S. regulations, with modifications including a thumbhole grip. All rifles were imported by GSI.

Specifications

Weight 3.6 kg (7.9 lb) (standard rifle)
3.3 kg (7.3 lb) (carbine)
3.2 kg (7.1 lb) (subcarbine)
3.9 kg (8.6 lb) (LMG)
3.3 kg (7.3 lb) (SMG)

Length 790 mm (31.1 in) (standard rifle)
690 mm (27.2 in) (carbine)
630 mm (24.8 in) (subcarbine)
900 mm (35.4 in) (LMG)
665 mm (26.2 in) (SMG) Barrel length 508 mm (20.0 in) (standard rifle)
407 mm (16.0 in) (carbine)
350 mm (13.8 in) (subcarbine)
621 mm (24.4 in) (LMG)
420 mm (16.5 in) (SMG)

Cartridge 5.56×45mm NATO
9×19mm Parabellum (SMG)

Action Gas-operated, rotating bolt

Rate of fire 680–750 rounds/min

Muzzle velocity 940 m/s (3,084 ft/s) (standard rifle)

Effective range Sighted for 300 m

Feed system 30 or 42-round box magazine (5.56 mm)
25 or 32-round MPi 69’s box magazine (9 mm)

Sights Swarovski 1.5x telescopic sight, back-up iron sights.

:: Running Surfaces: From Best to Worst ::

Other running surfaces include treadmills and water. Treadmills are very popular at fitness centers and may also be available to you when deployed aboard a ship. Most treadmills are state of the art in terms of cushioning and you can control the speed and intensity of your work out. Perhaps the biggest problem when working out on a treadmill is the boredom that is often associated with the monotony of the unchanging environment and the consistent pace. A portable cassette player or radio may be helpful, particularly during longer runs.

Deep water or aqua running is mainly used for rehabilitating injured athletes as it takes the pressure off of injured muscles and joints while providing cardiovascular benefits similar to those obtained with running on surface. This type of running is becoming popular at various swim centers

Warm-Up

A warm-up to lengthen short, tight muscles before running is crucial for preventing injuries that may result if muscles are “cold”. A longer muscle is less likely to get injured than a short, tight muscle because it can exert more force with less effort than a short muscle. Another benefit of warming up is that it protects tendons. Warm up by slow jogging or walking for five to 10 minutes before you run. After you warm up you need to stretch your hamstrings, quadriceps, hip flexors, groin, calves, achillcs, and the iliotibial band.

Cool-Down and Stretching

After completing your run, walk for a few minutes to cool-down. It is not a good idea to sprint at the end of your run and then come to a complete stop; this practice may result in an injury. Cooling down helps to shift the blood flow from the muscles to the heart and other vital organs. A cool down lets your heart rate slow down and your body gradually return to its pre-excrcise physiological state. Cooling down properly and stretching after your run will go a long way towards preventing injuries.

:: Nuclear Bombing – Recovery ::

The world and your community would be shattered by a nuclear war. Normal services would be disrupted; essential skills could be in short supply; equipment you had taken for granted might not be available. You would face the aftermath of a catastrophe, but if there had been previous planning, you need not face it alone.

Using community resources

As in the case of natural disasters, community action is by far the best way to do all that must be done to recover from a nuclear attack. Local governments have at hand many organized units, such as the police and fire departments, the county road commission and the health department, whose survivors can serve as a hard core for organized recovery actions immediately after people can emerge from shelters. Government agencies, military units, and other organizations, such as construction companies and the repairmen of the public utilities, would help to repair damage and restore service as soon as possible—as they have in past natural disasters. But many more helpers would e needed. Wherever you might be, in a community or family shelter, your help would be needed. If your community is lucky and receives little fallout, you may be needed to help a neighboring community. The communities that are well organized and have planned their recovery actions would be able to return to tolerable living conditions in the shortest time. The first job in this would be to clean up pre-selected areas to make them safe for living outside of shelters. The initial action may well originate with organized units in community shelters—from the basement of the city hall, from a shelter at a school—or it could come from groups in several shelters working together. As groups, they would have more of the manpower, equipment, and communications needed to start the job.

Getting rid of fallout

The process of removing fallout particles from exposed surfaces and disposing of the particles in places where they cannot harm people is called radiological decontamination. Paved areas could be decontaminated with firehoses or street flushers, using high pressure nozzles, and with motorized street sweepers. Roofs could be decontaminated with fire hoses. Unpaved areas could be decontaminated by scraping off or plowing under a thin top layer of soil. This could be done with large earthmoving equipment—such as motorized scrapers and motor graders—on large open areas, and with bulldozers, tractor scrapers, shovels and wheelbarrows on smaller areas around houses and trees. Another method would be to cover a contaminated area with clean earth. In decontaminating paved areas, crews could flush the particles into storm drains or into ditches, where the particles could be covered with clean earth or picked up and hauled to a dumping area. The scrapings from the unpaved areas could be dumped in a pile about 100 feet from occupied areas, or hauled away. The dumping area might be a gully, refuse area, or even a vacant lot roped off at a safe distance. Since the most effective and rapid methods of decontamination would involve the use of crews and equipment working in large areas, the best places to start the decontamination are likely to be at schools, shopping centers and downtown areas, and at parks and open fields where large equipment can operate.

It is vital that communities set aside in advance many rallying points where people can meet to start work after an attack. If you are in a home shelter and have a ratemeter, you should wait until the radiation level has fallen to a point where you can go out for about an hour without receiving more than a few roentgens. You could use this time to go to your local school, shopping area or other designated gathering place and join with your neighbors in community decontamination efforts. If you do not have a radiation instrument, stay in shelter until you are assured, by radio, by contact from local authorities, or by other means, that clean areas are established near you and that it is safe to proceed there. In areas of heavy fallout where the first decontamination actions can be started, if well organized, within the second week after attack, there is relatively little danger from fallout particles getting on people doing cleanup work—especially if normal habits of personal cleanliness are maintained. The most likely articles of clothing to pick up fallout particles are shoes, so keep them brushed clean.

On a farm

If you live on a farm, your pre-fallout preparations will have a lot to do with your cleaning up afterward. You should place as much of your livestock and produce in barns as you can. A normally filled hayloft affords some shielding from fallout radiation for animals below. Farm machinery, troughs, wells, and any produce you cannot get into barns should be covered with tarpaulins. You should store as much water in covered containers as you can, taking the precautions already outlined. Afterward, any livestock exposed to fallout could be washed or brushed to remove fallout particles. Water from wells and streams would be safe for animal use. Even water standing in a pond could be use since fallout particles would settle to the bottom. Pond water could be made even safer by stirring up a clay bottom and then letting it settle out. Feed and fodder stored under cover should be used first. If no other feed is available, animals could be turned out to pasture after a few days when the radioactivity has decreased. Farm animals and poultry would be an important source of human food and they should not be allowed to sicken and die from thirst and starvation. Animals which have been exposed to early fallout or which have fed on contaminated pastures could be slaughtered and the muscle meat would be fit for human consumption. Internal organs, however, such as the liver and spleen, should not be eaten unless no other food is available. It would be easier to preserve meat on the hoof than on the hook. Hogs and steers could be kept alive even with water and feed containing early fallout particles. Animals, like humans, can have radiation sickness. If the radiation level in your area indicates that animal sickness may be widespread, you probably will be told and given instructions on slaughtering. Care must be taken in slaughtering to prevent contamination of the carcasses by fallout particles from the hides and digestive tracts. Chickens and eggs would be a particularly important direct food resource because they are relatively resistant to radiation, especially if they are raised under cover using safe packaged feeds.

Milk from cows that have grazed on contaminated pastures would be radioactive, but in the absence of other food in an emergency, it could be used. Potatoes, corn, and other field crops exposed to early fallout would be safe to eat after cleaning. Grain that has been covered, as in elevators, would be safe. Threshing would reduce the amount of fallout particles in grain. Threshed grain exposed to fallout could be made safer by washing. If county agents are available, they can help you decide what crops, pasturage, and methods will be best and safest to use. Seeds of all sorts are quite resistant to radiation and do not require any special protection.

:: Nuclear Explosion – Basic Facts ::

The probable effects of nuclear attack and the relative value of certain protective measures are complex subjects. There is no attempt here to discuss them in great detail, but to present information that might be helpful in understanding the overall problem.

Effects of a 5-megaton burst

A five-megaton nuclear burst at ground level would destroy most buildings two miles from the point of the explosion. Steel-frame buildings would be knocked sideways and great fires started. The destruction five miles away would be less severe, but fires and early fallout could be a significant hazard.

At 10 miles, sturdy buildings would remain intact. At this distance fires probably would not be started by the fireball, but might be started by the blast wave which could rupture gas lines and short-circuit wires. Flying glass would present a major danger, as would early fallout.

At 50 miles from the bomb burst, all buildings would remain standing. The fading blast wave would take about five minutes to arrive, but would still shatter many windows. The greatest danger at this distance would be from early fallout which would begin arriving in some areas within three or four hours, depending upon weather conditions at the time.

Danger of fire storms

When nuclear or incendiary bombs strike a highly combustible city area, they can create a “fire storm”; the rising column of hot gases draws in surrounding cool air, producing inwardblowing winds that confine the fire storm to the blast damage area. Primary fires would be a much greater hazard than fire storms. For maximum fire damage, a nuclear weapon must be detonated high in the air. This would eliminate most of the potential fallout hazard. The spread of fires from a nuclear attack would be limited in the same ways as are peacetime fires—by barriers such as open space, rivers, highways, by rainfall, and by varied distribution of burnable material.

Exposure to radiation

During the average lifetime, every human being receives about 10 roentgens of nuclear radiation from natural sources. In addition, people are exposed to small amounts of radiation in dental and chest X-rays and even from the luminous dials of wrist watches. When large amounts of radiation are absorbed by the body in short periods of time, sickness and death may result. In general the effects of radiation stay with people and accumulate over a period of time. Few people get sick who have been exposed to 100 roentgens or less. Exposure to more than 300 roentgens over a period of a few days will cause sickness in the form of nausea, and may cause death. And death is certain if a person receives an exposure of 1,000 roentgens over a period of a few days.

Young people might be injured more by nuclear radiation than older people. This is because young people are more apt to absorb radioactive elements into their bones and internal organs than are older people. Since young people are potential parents, they should be protected as much as possible following a nuclear attack to minimize the possible genetic effects on their descendants resulting from too much exposure to nuclear radiation.

Radiation sickness not contagious

Radiation sickness is neither contagious nor infectious. Fallout radiation cannot make anything radioactive. Food and water that have been exposed to fallout radiation are contaminated only to the extent that they contain fallout particles. Exposed food that may have particles on it can be made safe by washing, brushing, or peeling. Fallout particles can be removed from water supplies by sedimentation or filtering. People who have fallout particles on their bodies or clothing probably would not carry enough to endanger other people, but they should wash themselves for their own protection.

Long-term effects of radiation Following a nuclear attack, most radioactive elements in fallout would decay rapidly, losing most of their power to harm. However, for some time thereafter the hazard could continue to restrict normal activities in some parts of the country. A few elements, such as strontium 90, cesium 137, and carbon 14, are long-lived and could harm humans in some ways, such as by being absorbed by food plants. However, the long-term damaging effects of such exposure are not yet known in great detail.

Radiation in the air

Following a nuclear attack the air would be contaminated by radioactive fallout only to the extent that it contained fallout particles. The most dangerous fallout particles—early fallout— would reach the earth in the first day after the detonation, but their mere passage through the air would not contaminate the air. Fallout particles in harmful amounts would not be present in basement family shelters. People in underground family shelters could keep fallout particles out of their shelters by having a simple hood over the air-intake pipe. Special filters are not needed for small shelters. However, group shelters that have high-velocity air-intake fans would have to have filters on the air-intake system to keep fallout particles out. How early fallout looks The most dangerous fallout—early fallout—would consist of radioactive particles that are relatively large and heavy—about the size of table salt or fine sand. The chances are you could see the particles although you could not detect the radiation from the particles without the use of a special instrument.

Special clothing offers little protection

Fallout radiation would pass through any type of protective clothing that would be practical to wear. Heavy and dense materials, such as earth and concrete, are needed to stop the highly penetrating fallout rays. Certain types of protective clothing could be useful—particularly for emergency workers— in keeping fallout particles off the body, but the wearer would not be protected from the gamma radiation given off by the particles. The worker would wear the clothing when in a fallout contaminated area, and then discard it or brush and wash it off thoroughly before entering a non-contaminated area.

Little hope in special medicines

Although many experiments have been conducted, there is little likelihood that a pill or any other type of medicine will be developed that can protect people from the effects of fallout radiation, so that shielding from fallout becomes necessary.

Evacuation vs. shelter

Two conditions make pre-attack evacuation of less general value as a protective measure for nuclear attack than it appeared

to be a few years ago: the danger of radioactive fallout to unsheltered evacuees, and the decrease in the probable attackwarning time if an enemy should attack with high-speed missiles. However, the problem of mass movement of people in the event of a nuclear attack is still a significant one because plans must be made to get people into shelters rather rapidly. Also, it may be necessary to move people out of severely damaged areas after an attack. Probable reaction to disaster Experience has shown that many human beings act cooperatively when disaster strikes, many feel helpless, a few panic. Disaster studies indicate that information, planning, and preparation clearly increase the extent of cooperative and constructive behavior following a disaster.

WORDS TO KNOW

A-BOMB AND H-BOMB. Popular terms for what should correctly be called nuclear weapons. An atomic or A-bomb explodes through the fission (splitting) of atomic nuclei; a hydrogen or H-bomb is called a thermonuclear weapon because tremendous heat is needed to start the fusion process.

KILOTON. The power of nuclear weapons is measured in equivalents of the explosive energy of TNT. A one-kiloton weapon has the explosive equivalent of 1,000 tons of TNT.

MEGATON. The explosive equivalent of one million tons of

TNT. In the example we provide here, a five megaton nuclear weapon exploded at or near ground level is assumed as a basis for describing explosive effects. There are much larger weapons which could do more damage, but the damage from larger weapons does not increase in direct ratio to the size of the weapons.

GROUND ZERO. The surface point at or above which a nuclear weapon detonates.

FIREBALL. The large, swiftly expanding sphere of hot gases, producing brilliant light and intense heat, that is the first manifestation of a nuclear explosion. After about a minute, the fireball fades into the atmosphere.

BLAST (SHOCK) WAVE. The near-solid wall of air pressure produced by a nuclear explosion. Beginning at more than 2,000 miles per hour, its speed decreases rapidly with distance.

BLAST WIND. The wind gust which travels with the blast wave and may be of many times hurricane force.

ROENTGEN. A unit for measuring an amount of radiation exposure.

INITIAL (PROMPT) RADIATION. The burst of gamma rays and neutrons sent out from the explosion during the first minute after detonation. Initial radiation is most deadly within about two miles of ground zero.

FALLOUT. The radioactive debris of a nuclear explosion, which eventually falls to earth in particles. The amount of fallout is enormously greater if a weapon detonates on or near the surface than if it explodes high in the air. Large amounts of earth are drawn up by the fireball. High in the sky, radioactive elements are incorporated into the earth particles, which are scattered by winds and in time fall to the ground.

FALLOUT RADIATION. The radiation emitted by fallout particles. Each particle of fallout gives off radiation as though it were a miniature X-ray machine. This radiation consists chiefly of beta rays (dangerous only if fallout particles touch the skin or are swallowed or inhaled) and gamma rays. Gamma rays, like X-rays, are very penetrating, and create the need for protective shields (fallout shelters).

EARLY FALLOUT. The fallout that returns to earth during the first day. This booklet is mainly about early fallout. The radioactivity of such fallout decreases rather rapidly at first, and more slowly as time passes.

:: Firearms: Kalashnikov Rifle ::

The AK-47 (contraction of Russian: Автомат Калашникова образца 1947 года; Avtomat Kalashnikova obraztsa 1947 goda; “Kalashnikov’s automatic rifle model of year 1947″) is a selective fire, gas operated 7.62mm assault rifle developed in the Soviet Union by Mikhail Kalashnikov. Six decades later, the AK-47 and its variants and derivatives remain in service throughout the world. It has been manufactured in many countries and has seen service with regular armed forces as well as irregular, revolutionary and terrorist organizations worldwide.

The AK-47 was one of the first true assault rifles and, due to its durability, low production cost and ease of use, the weapon and its numerous variants remain the most widely used assault rifles in the world—so much so that more AK-type rifles have been produced than all other assault rifles combined. It was also used by the majority of the member states of the former Warsaw Pact. The AK-47 was also used as a basis for the development of many other types of individual and crew-served firearms.

Design work on the AK began in 1944. In 1946 the rifle was presented for official military trials, and a year later the fixed stock version was introduced into service with select units of the Red Army (the folding stock model was developed later). The AK-47 was officially accepted by the Soviet Armed Forces in 1949. An early development of the design was the AKS-47 (S—Skladnoy priklad), which differed in being equipped with an underfolding metal shoulder stock.

During World War II, the Germans developed the assault rifle concept, based upon research that showed that most firefights happen at close range, within 300 meters. The power and range of contemporary rifle cartridges was excessive for most small arms firefights. As a result, armies sought a cartridge and rifle combining submachine gun features (large-capacity magazine, selective-fire) with an intermediate-power cartridge effective to 300 meters. To reduce manufacturing costs, the 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge case was shortened, the result of which was the lighter 7.92×33mm Kurz The resultant rifle, the Sturmgewehr 44 (StG44) was not the first with these features; its predecessors were the Italian Cei-Rigotti and the Russian Fedorov Avtomat design rifles. The Germans, however, were the first to produce and field sufficient numbers of this assault rifle to properly evaluate its combat utility. Towards the end of the war, they fielded the weapon against the Soviets; the experience deeply influenced Soviet military doctrine in the post-war years.

Mikhail Kalashnikov began his career as a weapon designer while in a hospital after being wounded during the Battle of Bryansk After tinkering with a sub-machine gun design, he entered a competition for a new weapon that would chamber the 7.62×41mm cartridge developed by Elisarov and Semin in 1943 (the 7.62×41mm cartridge predated the current 7.62×39mm M1943). A particular requirement of the competition was the reliability of the firearm in the muddy, wet, and frozen conditions of the Soviet frontline. Kalashnikov designed a carbine, strongly influenced by the American M1 Garand, that lost out to the Simonov design that would later become the SKS semi-automatic carbine. At the same time, the Soviet Army was interested in developing a true assault rifle employing a shortened M1943 round. The first such weapon was presented by Sudayev in 1944; however in trials it was found to be too heavy. A new design competition was held two years later where Kalashnikov and his design team submitted an entry. It was a gas-operated rifle which had breech-block mechanism similar to his 1944 carbine and curved 30-round magazine.

Kalashnikov’s rifles (codenamed AK-1 and -2) proved to be reliable and the gun was accepted to second round of competition along with designs by A.A Demetev and F. Bulkin. In late 1946, as the guns were being tested, one of Kalashnikov’s assistants, Aleksandr Zaytsev, suggested a major redesign of AK-1, particularly to improve reliability. At first, Kalashnikov was reluctant, given that their rifle had already fared better than its competitors; however eventually Zaytsev managed to persuade Kalashnikov. The new rifle was produced for a second round of firing tests and field trials. There, Kalashnikov assault rifle model 1947 proved to be simple and reliable, under a wide range of conditions with convenient handling characteristics. In 1949 it was therefore adopted by the Soviet Army as ‘7.62mm Kalashnikov assault rifle (AK).

Design concept

The AK-47 is best described as a hybrid of previous rifle technology innovations: the double locking lugs and unlocking raceway of the M1 Garand/M1 carbine, the trigger and safety mechanism of the John Browning designed Remington Model 8 rifle and the gas system, layout, and intermediate cartridge of the StG44. Kalashnikov’s team had access to all of these weapons and had no need to “reinvent the wheel”, though he denied that his design was based on the German Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifle. Kalashnikov himself observed: “A lot of [Soviet Army soldiers] ask me how one can become a constructor, and how new weaponry is designed. These are very difficult questions. Each designer seems to have his own paths, his own successes and failures. But one thing is clear: before attempting to create something new, it is vital to have a good appreciation of everything that already exists in this field. I myself have had many experiences confirming this to be so.”

Receiver development history

There were many difficulties during the initial phase of production. The first production models had stamped sheet metal receivers. Difficulties were encountered in welding the guide and ejector rails, causing high rejection rates. Instead of halting production, a heavy machined receiver was substituted for the sheet metal receiver. This was a more costly process, but the use of machined receivers accelerated production as tooling and labor for the earlier Mosin-Nagant rifle’s machined receiver were easily adapted. Partly because of these problems, the Soviets were not able to distribute large numbers of the new rifle to soldiers until 1956. During this time, production of the interim SKS rifle continued.

Once manufacturing difficulties had been overcome, a redesigned version designated the AKM (M for “modernized” or “upgraded” — in Russian: Автомат Калашникова Модернизированный Avtomat Kalashnikova Modernizirovanniy) was introduced in 1959. This new model used a stamped sheet metal receiver and featured a slanted muzzle brake on the end of the barrel to compensate for muzzle rise under recoil. In addition, a hammer retarder was added to prevent the weapon from firing out of battery (without the bolt being fully closed), during rapid or automatic fire. This is also sometimes referred to as a “cyclic rate reducer”, or simply “rate reducer”, as it also has the effect of reducing the number of rounds fired per minute during automatic fire. It was also roughly one-third lighter than the previous model. Both licensed and unlicensed production of the Kalashnikov weapons abroad were almost exclusively of the AKM variant, partially due to the much easier production of the stamped receiver. This model is the most commonly encountered, having been produced in much greater quantities. All rifles based on the Kalashnikov design are frequently referred to as AK-47s in the West, although this is only correct when applied to rifles based on the original 3 receiver types. In most former Eastern Bloc countries, the weapon is known simply as the “Kalashnikov”. The photo above at right illustrates the differences between the Type 2 milled receiver and the Type 4 stamped, including the use of rivets rather than welds on the stamped receiver, as well as the placement of a small dimple above the magazine well for stabilization of the magazine.

In 1978, the Soviet Union began replacing their AK-47 and AKM rifles with a newer design, the AK-74. This new rifle and cartridge had only started being exported to eastern European nations when the Soviet Union collapsed, drastically slowing production of this and other weapons of the former Soviet bloc.

Features

The main advantages of the Kalashnikov rifle are its simple design, fairly compact size and adaptation to mass production. It is inexpensive to manufacture, and easy to clean and maintain; its ruggedness and reliability are legendary. The AK-47 was initially designed for ease of operation and repair by glove-wearing Soviet soldiers in Arctic conditions. The large gas piston, generous clearances between moving parts, and tapered cartridge case design allow the gun to endure large amounts of foreign matter and fouling without failing to cycle. This reliability comes at the cost of accuracy, as the looser tolerances do not allow for precision and consistency. Reflecting Soviet infantry doctrine of its time, the rifle is meant to be part of massed infantry fire, not long range engagements. The average service life of an AK-47 is 20 to 40 years depending on the conditions to which it has been exposed.

The notched rear tangent iron sight is adjustable, and is calibrated in hundreds of meters. The front sight is a post adjustable for elevation in the field. Windage adjustment is done by the armory before issue. The battle setting places the round within a few centimeters above or below the point of aim out to about 250 meters (275 yd). This “point-blank range” setting allows the shooter to fire the gun at any close target without adjusting the sights. Longer settings are intended for area suppression. These settings mirror the Mosin-Nagant and SKS rifles which the AK-47 replaced. This eased transition and simplified training.

The prototype of the AK-47, the AK-46, had a separate fire selector and safety. These were later combined in the production version to simplify the design. The fire selector acts as a dust cover for the charging handle raceway when placed on safe. This prevents intrusion of dust and other debris into the internal parts. The dust cover on the M16 rifle, in contrast, is not tied to the safety.

The bore and chamber, as well as the gas piston and the interior of the gas cylinder, are generally chromium-plated. This plating dramatically increases the life of these parts by resisting corrosion and wear. This is particularly important, as most military-production ammunition during the 20th century contained Potassium chlorate in the primers. On firing, this was converted to corrosive and hygroscopic Potassium chloride which mandated frequent and thorough cleaning in order to prevent damage. Chrome plating of critical parts is now common on many modern military weapons.

Operating cycle

To fire, the operator inserts a loaded magazine, moves the selector lever to the lowest position, pulls back and releases the charging handle, aims, and then pulls the trigger. In this setting, the firearm fires only once (semi-automatic), requiring the trigger to be released and depressed again for the next shot. With the selector in the middle position (full-automatic), the rifle continues to fire, automatically cycling fresh rounds into the chamber, until the magazine is exhausted or pressure is released from the trigger. As each bullet travels through the barrel, a portion of the gases expanding behind it is diverted into the gas tube above the barrel, where it impacts the gas piston. The piston, in turn, is driven backward, pushing the bolt carrier, which causes the bolt to move backwards, ejecting the spent round, and chambering a new round when the recoil spring pushes it back.

Disassembly

Dismantling the rifle involves the operator depressing the magazine catch and removing the magazine. The charging handle is pulled to the rear and the operator inspects the chamber to verify the weapon is unloaded. The operator presses forward on the retainer button at the rear of the receiver cover while simultaneously lifting up on the rear of the cover to remove it. The operator then pushes the spring assembly forward and lifts it from its raceway, withdrawing it out of the bolt carrier and to the rear. The operator must then pull the carrier assembly all the way to the rear, lift it, and then pull it away. The operator removes the bolt by pushing it to the rear of the bolt carrier; rotating the bolt so the camming lug clears the raceway on the underside of the bolt carrier and then pulls it forward and free. When cleaning, the operator will pay special attention to the barrel, bolt face, and gas piston, then oil lightly and reassemble.

Ballistics

Main article: 7.62×39mm

The standard AK-47 or AKM fires the 7.62×39mm cartridge with a muzzle velocity of 710 metres per second (2,300 ft/s). Muzzle energy is 2,010 joules (1,480 ft·lbf). Cartridge case length is 38.6 millimetres (1.52 in), weight is 18.21 grams (281.0 gr). Projectile weight is normally 8 grams (120 gr). The AK-47 and AKM, with the 7.62×39mm cartridge, have a maximum effective range of around 400 metres (1,300 ft).

Variants

Kalashnikov variants include:

AK-47 1948–51, 7.62×39mm — The very earliest models, with the Type 1 stamped sheet metal receiver, are now very rare.

AK-47 1952, 7.62×39mm — Has a milled receiver and wooden buttstock and handguard. Barrel and chamber are chrome plated to resist corrosion. Rifle weight is 4.2 kg (9.3 lb).

AKS-47 — Featured a downward-folding metal stock similar to that of the German MP40, for use in the restricted space in the BMP infantry combat vehicle, as well as by paratroops.

RPK, 7.62×39mm — Squad automatic rifle version with longer barrel and bipod.

AKM, 7.62×39mm — A simplified, lighter version of the AK-47; Type 4 receiver is made from stamped and riveted sheet metal (see schematic above). A slanted muzzle device was added to counter climb in automatic fire. Rifle weight is 3.1 kg (6.8 lb) due to the lighter receiver.

AKMS, 7.62×39mm — Folding-stock version of the AKM intended for airborne troops. Stock may be either side- or under-folding

AK-74 series, 5.45×39mm

AK-101 series

AK-103/AK-104 series

AK-107/AK-108 series

Illicit trade

Throughout the world, the AK and its variants are among the most commonly smuggled small arms sold to governments, rebels, criminals, and civilians alike, with little international oversight. In some countries, prices for AKs are very low; in Somalia, Rwanda, Mozambique, Congo and Ethiopia, prices are between $30–$125 per weapon, and prices have fallen in the last few decades due to mass counterfeiting. Moisés Naím observed that in a small town in Kenya in 1986, an AK-47 cost fifteen cows but that in 2005, the price was down to four cows indicating that supply was “immense”. The weapon has appeared in a number of conflicts including clashes in the Balkans, Iraq, Afghanistan, and Somalia.

After the Soviet retreat from Afghanistan, the Soviet Army left quantities of weapons including AKs which were subsequently used in the civil war between Taliban and Northern Alliance and were also exported to Pakistan. The gun is now also made in Pakistan’s semi-autonomous areas. It is widely used by tribes in Africa like the Hamar, amongst others.

The World Bank estimates that 75 million AK-47s are available worldwide, out of 100 million Kalashnikov family weapons and 500 million total firearms. Mikhail Kalashnikov addressed the United Nations in 2006 at a conference aimed at solving the problem of illicit weapons, saying that he appreciated the AK-47’s role in state-sponsored defense but that counterfeit weapons carrying his name in the hands of “terrorists and thugs” caused him regret.

Cultural influence

During the Cold War, the Soviet Union, the People’s Republic of China and the United States supplied arms and technical knowledge to numerous client-state countries and rebel forces. While the United States used the relatively expensive M-14 battle rifle and M16 assault rifle during this time, it generally supplied older surplus weapons to its allies. The low production and materials costs of the AK-47 meant that the Soviet Union could produce and supply client states with this rifle instead of sending surplus munitions. As a result, the Cold War saw the mass export, sometimes free of charge, of AK-47s by the Soviet Union and Communist China to pro-communist countries and groups such as the Nicaraguan Sandinistas and Vietcong. The AK design was spread to over 55 national armies and dozens of paramilitary groups.

:: Sport Related Injuries ::

Treatments for Training-Related Injuries

Sudden, traumatic, or acute injuries to the musculoskeletal tissue quickly result in inflammation, a process characterized by localized warmth, swelling, redness and pain. If left unchecked, however, the inflammatory process rapidly leads to:

♦ Tissue congestion

♦ Stiffness

♦ Weakness

♦ Decreased range of motion

♦ Loss of normal function

A highly successful Sports Medicine approach to accelerate the healing of any injury iB to first decrease the inflammatory process (swelling, pain and warmth), and then increase the range of motion at the joint. RICE and ISE are the approaches used to achieve these goals.

RICE = Rest, Ice, Compression & Elevation

After decreasing inflammation by RICE, range of motion at the joint is achieved through continued use of ice (I), stretching of the injured ligament or tendon (S), and weight bearing exercises (E).

ISE = Ice, Stretching, & Exercise

Reduce Inflammation

RICE (rest, ice, compression, elevation) is appropriate for all strains and sprains. In general, if an operator cannot bear weight on the extremity, rest is indicated and x-rays to rule out a fracture should be completed as soon as practical.

♦ “REST” means applying no weight or only partial weight to the extremity; crutches should be used for locomotion. “Relative Rest” means decreasing activities that cause pain and replacing them with other activities that are pain-free.

♦ “ICE” means applying ice. This should continue until swelling has stabilized.

♦ “COMPRESSION” means applying an Ace wrap or similar compression wrap to the injured part for periods of 2-4 hours. Never sleep with a compression wrap applied unless medically advised.

♦ “ELEVATION” means placing the injured part above the level of the heart; this allows gravity to help reduce the swelling and fluid accumulation.

Application of Ice

Ice serves a variety of important roles in the treatment of training and sport injuries, including:

♦ Reduces swelling that accompanies inflammation

♦ Decreases muscle spasm and pain

♦ Allows for less painful range of motion

♦ Enhances blood flow back to the site after it has been removed

The operator should not wait for a medical evaluation before using ice.

All soft tissue or joint injuries, except open wounds, will benefit by immediate application of ice. Ice can be applied either passively or actively. Passive application is when you take some form of ice: crushed ice, ice slush, an ice pack, or snow and apply it to the injured body part. Active application is when you take the ice (perhaps in water frozen in a cup or bag) and massage the injured part with the ice. At home, a bag of frozen peas is an excellent way to passively ice the injured part, as the peas easily conform to the swollen area. After 20 minutes, the bag of peas can be tossed back into the freezer for reapplication later. The normal response to ice includes cold, burning, aching and finally numbness over the affected part. This progression occurs over 7-10 minutes.

Ice can be applied either passively or actively. Do not apply ice directly to the skin.

Tips for Applying Ice: Passive and Active

• Apply ice to the area for 20 minutes as soon after the injury as possible.

• Repeat this every other hour the first day, then three times a day after the first day,

• Use ice until swelling decreases: usually 2-3 days.

Caution:To prevent skin or nerve damage, do not keep ice on for more than 20 minutes, especially when applying to the elbow, wrist, or behind/side of the knee.

Range of Motion

The term range of motion is used to describe the extent to which a particular joint can be moved; achieving complete range of motion is the goal, but sometimes injuries restrict the range of motion. During the 20 minute icing session, you should attempt to move the injured part through a pain-free range of motion. Days later you can attempt a resistance activity which stresses the injured part while moving the joint through a range of motion that can be tolerated. An example would be moving the ankle up and down against resistance applied by holding a towel under the foot (Figure 12-1). Continued elevation and use of a compression wrap while doing these exercises will retard swelling.

Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)

All of you have taken non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) at some point in your career, cither as prescribed by a physician or on your own. NSAIDs are often used as the first treatment for overuse injuries because they are effective: NSAIDs decrease the symptoms due to inflammation (i.e., swelling, pain, tenderness, fever associated with injury). Although they are usually available over-the-counter, they are not a medication to take lightly. NSAIDs are used in training related injuries when there is inflammation caused by:

♦ Tendonitis

♦ Bursitis

♦ Sprains/Strains

In the case of an acute injury which involves bleeding (including bruising) or swelling, NSAIDs should not be started for 2 to 3 days or until the swelling has stabilized.

NSAIDs may cause side effects.

The most frequently reported side effects include:

♦ Gastrointestinal distress such as nausea, heartburn, or vomiting

♦ Gastrointestinal ulcers/bleeding

♦ Increased blood pressure

♦ Decreased ability of blood to clot

♦ Exacerbation of asthma

♦ Potential kidney damage with long-term use

Remember: NSAIDs should not he used, or should be used with extreme caution, in conjunction with alcohol, as both irritate the stomach. Table 12-2 provides a list of the most commonly prescribed (or over-the-counter) NSAIDs, with their generic and common brand name-Table 12-2. Generic Names (and Common Names) for Various Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agents

Generic Anti-Inflammatory Agents

Aspirin (Bayer, Aspirin, Ecotrin) Ketoprofen (Orudis)

Diclofenac (Voltaren) Mectofenamate (Meclomen)

Diflunisal (Dolobid) Nabumetone (Relafen)

Etodolac (Lodine) Naproxen (Naprosyn, Anaprox)

Fenoprofen (Nalfon) Oxaprozin (Daypro)

Flurbiprofen (Ansaid) Piroxicam (Feldene, Antiflog)

Ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin) Sulindac (Clinoril)

Indomethacin (Indocin, Indocin SR) Tolmetin (Tolectin 200,Tolectin 600)

If you have stomach or other gastrointestinal tract problems, Tylenol (acetaminophen) may be a better choice for relieving muscle soreness than Ibuprofen- and Aspirin-based products.

:: Firearms: FAMAS F1 rifle ::

The FAMAS (French: Fusil d’Assaut de la Manufacture d’Armes de Saint-Étienne or “Saint-Étienne arms factory assault rifle”) is a bullpup assault rifle designed and manufactured in France by MAS (an abbrevation of Manufacture d’Armes St. Etienne – one of several government-owned arms factories in France) located in Saint-Étienne, which is now a member of the French government-owned Nexter (formerly GIAT Industries) group. It is the service rifle of the French military.

Development

The first French bullpup rifles were developed between 1946 and 1950 at the AME (Atelier Mecanique de Mulhouse) and MAS, testing rounds such as .30 US Carbine, 7.92×33mm Kurz, 7.65×38mm (Made by Cartoucherie de Valence) and some other intermediate calibers. Since France was engaged in the First Indochina War at the time, and was also the second-largest contributor to NATO, the budgets for new types of weapons were reduced and priority was given to the modernisation and production of existing service weapons. Nevertheless, approximately forty different prototypes were developed between 1952 and 1962, most of which were designed for the 7.62×51mm NATO round, however, the round was not found to be suitable for any bullpup designs, and consequently, none were adopted, and the ideas were set aside. MAS then began to manufacture under license the H&K G3 and the H&K 33 in the 1960s and studies were reactivated to produce a weapon using the new .223/5.56mm round.

The FAMAS project began in 1967 under the direction of Paul Tellie and the first prototype was completed in 1971, with French military evaluation of the rifle beginning in 1972. When production problems delayed the general issue of the new rifles, and with the 1976 airborne operation in Kolwezi showing the immediate need for a more modern weapon, the French Army began searching for a temporary rifle to fill this need until the FAMAS came into full production. The H&K 33 was considered, and 1200 pieces were tested by Infantry, Marines, Mechanized and Airborne troops, but it was ultimately turned down in favour of the SIG SG 540, built under licence by Manhurin, until enough FAMAS rifles were produced to begin general issue. The French military finally accepted the rifle in 1978 as the standard French combat weapon.

After adoption, the FAMAS F1 replaced the aging MAS 49/56 rifle and MAT-49 submachine gun, and approximately 400,000 FAMAS F1 assault rifles were produced, with production now complete. The F1 was followed by the G1 that included several minor improvements such as redesigned grips and an enlarged trigger guard, but it remained conceptual and was never actually produced. The FAMAS G2 was developed circa 1994 to bring the rifle more in compliance with NATO standards by having tighter rifling and accepting standard NATO magazines, but also included several other upgrades taken from the G1 model, such as the enlarged trigger guard and improved hand guards. The French Navy purchased the FAMAS G2 in 1995, and began distributing it to the Fusiliers Marins and Commandos Marine, but the French Army has held off large scale purchase of the G2 to date, and the FAMAS F1 still remains the Army’s primary service rifle. Small quantities of the FAMAS F1 have also been exported to Senegal and the United Arab Emirates, but for the most part, the rifle has remained almost exclusively in French service.

Design details

1. Rubber buttstock
2. Removable stock
3. Cheek rest. Can be fitted for right or left-handed firers.
4. Mobile assembly and spent case ejecting trap
5. Pins
6. Bipod
7. Handguard
8. Cocking lever
9. Grenade launch sight
10. Grenade support
11. Flash Suppressor
12. Barrel
13. Firing selector: Safety, single shot, automatic
14. Trigger
15. Magazine release
16. STANAG magazine
17. Serial number
18. 3-round burst or full automatic selector

Sling ring

The FAMAS assault rifle is a bullpup configuration like the British SA80 and the Austrian Steyr AUG, with the ammunition feed behind the trigger. The receiver housing is made of a special steel alloy, and the rifle furniture is made of fiberglass. The rifle uses a lever-delayed blowback action, a system employed on the LMG AA52 derived from the prototypes built during Army Technical Department tests having taken place between WW1 and WW2. Fire rate is controlled by a selector just behind the magazine well, with three settings: safe, single shot, and automatic fire. Automatic fire can be in three-shot bursts (rafale) or fully automatic; this is determined by another selector, located under the housing and behind the magazine.

The FAMAS F1 and G1, the original variants, were designed to use French-made 25-round magazines with the 5.56×45mm NATO cartridge. These magazines were incompatible with standard NATO weaponry, but the FAMAS G2 uses the STANAG Magazine as used by most other NATO rifles, such as the M16 and SA80. The FAMAS G2 weighs 3.8 kg (8.38 lb). The G1 and G2 have a large, grip-length triggerguard like a Steyr AUG to allow easy access to the trigger when wearing gloves.

The F1 and G2 models of the FAMAS feature a bipod attached to the upper handguard.

Service

The FAMAS first saw service in Chad during Operation Manta and again in desert operations in Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm and in other various peacekeeping missions. Operational conditions proved the weapon to be reliable and trustworthy under combat conditions. The FAMAS was affectionately known as clairon (“bugle”, because of its shape) amongst French troops in the late 70s-early 80s. An improved version of the FAMAS G2 is integrated in the Félin system.

Senegal and the United Arab Emirates received a small number of FAMAS F1 rifles from France, though it was unknown when they received them. Djibouti uses this weapon in its military as the standard infantry weapon. The Philippines also received a limited number and is used by the Philippine National Police Special Action Force.

Specifications

Weight 3.61 kg (7.96 lb) (FAMAS F1)
3.8 kg (8.38 lb) (FAMAS G2)

Length 757 mm (29.8 in) / 965 mm (38.0 in) with bayonet Barrel length 488 mm (19.2 in)

Cartridge 5.56×45mm NATO Action Lever-delayed blowback

Rate of fire 900-1000 rounds/min (F1)
1000-1100 rounds/min (G2)

Muzzle velocity 960 m/s (3,100 ft/s) (F1)
925 m/s (3,030 ft/s) (G2)

Effective range 300 m (F1)
450 m (G2)

Feed system 25-round box magazine (F1)
30-round box magazine (STANAG system) (G2)

Sights Rear aperture fitted with tritium night inserts, front posted.

:: Plyometric Training ::

Premature plyometric training may cause injury because plyometrics place considerable stress on the body. Plyometrics is an advanced training technique that should only be performed under the guidance of those with knowledge and experience with this type of training. It involves explosive types of activities (i.e., jumping onto and down from objects, bounding up and down stairs on one or both feet and high speed sending and receiving) to convert muscle strength to muscle power. Whenever you run, jump, catch or throw, you are performing a plyometric movement.

Box Jump Side Cone Jumps

Plyometric exercises train the muscles to reach maximal strength in the shortest time possible. In other words, muscle strength plus speed equals muscle power. The rapid application of force is the goal of plyometric training. Plyometric exercises will not train an energy system as seen with aerobic or strength conditioning; rather such exercises train the neuromuscular system so that it may respond more quickly to increased loads. By making use of the inherent elasticity of the muscles and certain neuromuscular reflexes, plyometric exercises enhance the speed and distance an object moves (e.g., your body, shot put).

Plyometric training is very intense, highly specific, and if done improperly it may be injurious.

How Plyometrics Work

Plyometric exercises help to develop explosive strength and speed in fast twitch muscle fibers. Those exercises use the inherent stretch-recoil properties of muscle (i.e., eccentric tension generated when the muscles are lengthened) to enhance subsequent shortening or concentric contractions. This is the dynamic action behind the rapid pre-stretch or “cocking” phase to “activate” these natural recoil properties. Examples of this phase include taking the arm back into position prior to throwing a baseball or bending the knees prior to jumping. Thus athletes that rely on explosive strength and speed, such as sprinters and basketball players, include plyometrics in their training programs. A plyometric movement can be broken down into three phases:

♦ Lengthening phase {eccentric contraction)

♦ Amortization phase

♦ Take-off (concentric contraction)

There are three phases of Plyometrics: Lengthening, Amortization and Take-Off

During the lengthening phase, the muscle creates tension like a spring being stretched. This type of contraction, called an eccentric contraction, occurs when performing movements such as jumping flown from an object, running downhill, or lowering a weight.

After contraction, tension is built into the muscle as it lengthens. The take-off occurs via concentric contraction of the muscles. During this phase, the muscle shortens as it contracts, and actual work (i.e., movement of the body through space) is performed.

The amortization phase is the period of time from the beginning of I he lengthening phase to the beginning of the take-off phase. This is the most important phase when it comes to plyometric training. During this phase, the muscle must convert the muscular tension generated during the lengthening phase to acceleration in a selected direction during the takeoff phase. The elastic properties inherent within the muscles and neuromuscular reflexes (the stretch reflex) arc responsible for this conversion. Plyometric training may increase the efficiency of this conversion. The goal of plyometric training is to decrease the amount of time in the amortization phase and thereby increase speed.

Preparation for Plyometric Training

Plyometric exercises should he undertaken only once an adequate strength base has been developed. Most sources define an adequate strength base for lower body plyomctrics as the ability to squat or leg press 1.5 to 2.0 (imes your body weight for one maximum repetition. Kor upper body plyometrics, larger athletes (weight greater than 115 kg or 250 lbs.) should he able to bench press their body weight and athletes weighing less than 1 If) kg <250 lbs) should be able to bench press 1.5 times their body weight.

Plyometric training should never be undertaken if you have any leg, hip, arm, or shoulder injury.

Safety in Plyometric Training

Several steps can be taken to ensure that plyometrics training is site These measures include using an appropriate surface, footwear, and equipment, and proper technique.

Surface

Plyometrics should not be performed on hard surfaces such as concrete or steel, nor should they be performed on soft surfaces such as sand.

The best surface is a grass field, followed by artificial turf or wrestling mats.

Footwear

Recommended shoes are those that provide ankle and arch support, lateral stability, and have a wide, non-slip sole.

Equipment

Boxes that are used for in-depth or box jumps should have a non-slip top and should never exceed a height of 1.2 m (0.5 – 0.75 m is recommended: 1.5 to 2.5 ft. and less than 4 ft).

Medicine balls are commonly used for many of the exercises. This is a ball that weighs no more than 10% of your typical training weight. For example, if you regularly train with a 200 pound bench press, then the medicine ball you use should be no more than 20 lbs. These balls can be covered with leather, plastic, rubber, or any type of fabric.

Technique

As with other exercises, attention should be paid to proper technique. For example, when performing lunges, the knee angle should not exceed 90°. Any movement beyond this angle will place undue stress on knee cartilage and ligaments. Keeping the knee directly over and in line with the big toe will help maintain technique. The step should be straight out, not to the side. The shoulders should always be over the knees during landing when performing in-depth jumps.

Fatigue from high-volume training can compromise technique and result in injury. When technique begins to fail, it is time to stop the exercise and rest.

Program Design and the Overload Principle

Plyometrics training should be tailored to account for individual characteristics and the activity for which one is training. More stress will he placed on the muscles, joints, and connective tissue of heavier individuals, therefore, bigger operators (weight greater than 90 kg or 198 lbs.) should not perform high-intensity plyometric exercises.

Persons with a previous history of injury should be cleared by a medical officer prior to plyometric training.

A plyometrics program for the special operations community should incorporate those types of movements (i.e., linear, vertical, lateral, or a combination) required for operational performance. For example, downhill skiing would require diagonal movements, close-quarters battle (CQB) would require horizontal, vertical, and diagonal movements.

The overload principal is the basis for any training program whether it be cardiovascular training or the development of muscular strength, endurance, or power. The three basic variables used in the overload principal include the frequency, volume (or duration), and intensity of training. By increasing any one or a combination of these variables within a training program, one can continuously and safely overload the system that is to be trained (i.e., cardiovascular, muscular, neuromuscular).

Frequency

Frequency is the number of workouts per week (or other unit of time). For plyometric training, the range is usually from one to three sessions per week, depending on the sport and season. A plyometric training program for the Naval Special Warfare community should consist of two training sessions per week when operational demands require such training. Allow 2-3 days for recovery between workouts to avoid overtraining or injury.

Volume or Duration

The volume for plyometric training is defined as the number of foot contacts or landings per session.

♦ Beginners: 80-100 landings per session

♦ Intermediate: 100-120 landings per session

♦ Advanced: 120-140 landings per session

Intensity

The intensity for plyometrics training is the level of stress placed on the neuromuscular system, the connective tissue, and the joints, and is determined by the type of exercises performed. For example, skipping is a low intensity exercise while in-depth box jumps are of higher intensity. Some guidelines arc provided as follows:

♦ Vertical jumps are more stressful than horizontal jumps.

♦ One leg landings arc more stressful than landings on two feet.

Plyometric Training

Plyometric training should begin with a general warm-up followed by dynamic stretching (see Chapter 7 for stretching). Stretches should mimic the activity to be performed (e.g., 4-Way Lunges and Leg Swings for lower body plyometrics; Up Back and Overs or Press-Prcss-Fling for upper body plyometrics). Static stretches can also be added.

Two sessions of plyometrics per week are sufficient.

Heavy strength and plyometric training on the same body area should not be performed on the same day.

However, upper body strength training may he combined with lower body plyometrics and vice versa. Adequate time for recovery from each type of training is needed and can take from 1-3 days, depending on the intensity. If schedules are tight, the intensity of strength and plyometric exercises should vary from low to high to allow sufficient time for recovery. For instance, when high-intensity plyometrics is required strength training should be of a lower intensity.

Plyometric Exercises

When performing jumps it often helps to think of “hanging in the air” for as long as possible, keeping shoulders parallel to the ground at all times. Emphasis should be on speed without sacrificing proper technique.

:: Running: Building & Increasing Your Mileage ::

Building Your Mileage

Increasing mileage too quickly can cause training injuries. Your running mileage should be gradually increased and not by more than 10% to 20% from one week to the next. For example, if you can comfortably run four miles, increase your distance by a mile and maintain this new mileage for at least one to two weeks or until this distance is consistently easy for you. Also, remember consistency is more important than speed.

A good rule of thumb: increase your mileage by no more than 20% a week.

When you can continuously run for 40 minutes, begin thinking about your running mileage or distance. Most of you, unless coming back from an injury or returning from a deployment, are already running 30 to 40 minutes as part of your fitness routine. However, if you have been unable to run for some time due to reasons mentioned above or other reasons, start out slowly; this will prevent you from getting injured and benefit you in the long run.

Running Frequency

Run at least three to four times per week or every other day. It is a good idea to build in one or two rest days in your weekly running schedule. These rest days do not necessarily mean no exercise, but rather an alternate type of exercise, such as biking or swimming. This allows your “running muscles” time for rest and recovery, and helps prevent overuse training injuries.

Running Speed and Intensity

When running for exercise and not competition, you should run at an even pace that allows you to talk comfortably. If you run too fast and get breathless, you may not be able to go the distance. Also, speed work tends to tighten muscles and must be properly stretched afterwards. Failure to stretch may lead to an injury. One way to estimate your training intensity is to check your heart rate and see if it falls within your target training zone. As previously mentioned, speed is not as important as being able to go the distance consistently.

Increase length of stride: do not overstride Increase frequency of stride Increase length and frequency of stride

Do not increase speed and distance simultaneously.

Increasing both at the same time may cause an injury. Hold one-constant while you gradually increase the other. After you have been running 30 minutes continuously 3-5 times per week, you can begin increasing your running distance. Running 20 to 30 miles per week is a good training distance for an intermediate runner. If you would like to further increase your weekly mileage, remember to increase it by no more than 20% per week. The table below provides a nine week program for running up to 40 miles per week.

CT = Cross Training (running, biking, skiing)

The program in the table provides a basic template for you. Based on your own routine, you could modify this program to fit your schedule and requirements. Another way to vary your workout is to have one long slow run and one fast run per week. Remember if you feel over tired, cut back your mileage or take a day off from running. With a running base of 40 miles per week you can easily run a half marathon.

:: Biomechanics of Running ::

Different runners may have different running styles. Running is a function of footstrike, forward stride, body angle, and arm drive. The key is:

Run naturally and remain relaxed.

Footstrike

For most runners, other than sprinters or very fast runners, the heel-ball footstrike method works well:

(1) the outside of the heel strikes the surface;

(2) the foot rolls inwards to the ball of the foot while the knee is slightly bent; and the foot lifts off from propulsion provided by the big toe. This method provides good shock absorption.

Forward Stride

The point of foot contact should occur in line with the knee which should be slightly flexed. As you improve and get faster, the length and frequency of your strides will increase and you will begin lifting your knees higher. Do not overstride such that your foot hits the ground ahead of the knee flex (i.e. leg should not be straight at point of impact). Overstriding is hard on the knees, back and the hips and can cause injuries. Short, choppy strides, which usually result from tight or inflexible muscles, require more energy and are inefficient. Run with a relaxed stride and do not exaggerate the knee-lift or back kick.

Body Angle

Keep your back as straight as naturally possible, your head up and look ahead. Of course, depending on the terrain you may have to look down to avoid tripping or landing in a hole or rut. Lean forward only when going uphill or sprinting as this motion will put stress on leg muscles and may cause back pain and shin splints. Leaning back is not recommended as this puts tremendous pressure on the back and legs and has a “braking effect”. The key is to run “tall” and remain relaxed; allow your shoulders to hang in a relaxed manner and let your arms drop from time to time.

Arm Drive

While running relax your shoulders, elbows, wrists and fists and occasionally let your arms hang down at your sides and loosely shake them out. Whereas vigorous pumping of the arms helps sprinters, it is unnecessary during distance running.